Issue Summary
While federal laws prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex, gender disparities persist in education, employment and earnings, retirement, health, violence, and other areas covered by federal programs. Women are more likely to be concentrated in low-wage jobs, be responsible for caregiving, and experience sexual harassment and assault. Additionally, the United States has the highest rates of maternal death of developed countries—in fact, U.S. maternal mortality rates have increased as rates have decreased globally.
Federal agencies could more effectively design, implement, and evaluate programs and policies to help address such issues.
For instance:
- School dress codes. Nearly all public school districts require students to adhere to dress codes. While school districts often cite safety as the reason for having a dress code, many dress codes include elements that may make the school environment less equitable and safe for students. For example, an estimated 60% of dress codes have rules involving measuring students' bodies and clothing—which may involve adults touching students. Consequently, students, particularly girls, may feel less safe at school. Further, school districts more frequently restrict items typically worn by girls—such as skirts, tank tops, and leggings—than those typically worn by boys (like muscle shirts). The Department of Education (Education) is considering options to provide helpful resources to stakeholders and the public but has not yet done so.
Items Commonly Prohibited by School Dress Codes
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- College athletics. In 1972, Title IX required equity for women in college athletics. Yet 50 years later, women still participate in college athletics at lower rates than men—despite enrolling in college at higher rates. Education’s Office for Civil Rights assesses compliance with Title IX. However, it didn’t always follow up with colleges in a timely way to make sure they were addressing concerns about women’s athletics. Additionally, high-profile cases at multiple colleges have raised concerns about sexual harassment and violence against athletes. But college sports culture may make it hard for college athletes to report incidents of sexual harassment or violence—which may also be Title IX violations.
- Women in the military. The military services provide leadership training to high school students through the Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (JROTC), which is overseen by the Department of Defense (DOD). In 2025, an estimated 2% to 7% of public high schools with JROTC programs had at least one JROTC instructor who was the subject of an adult sexual misconduct allegation in the prior 5 years. DOD has policies to prevent and respond to sexual misconduct in JROTC programs, but instructor training doesn’t consistently cover information about how students can report misconduct. Additionally, service members who experience unwanted sexual behavior during military service—including sexual harassment, sexual assault, and domestic sexual abuse—are more likely to separate from the military, exacerbating DOD's critical recruitment and retention challenges.
- Women in STEM. For decades, women have been largely underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) professions. Sexual harassment can drive talented people out of STEM jobs—hurting the U.S. workforce and innovation. Federal agencies fund STEM research at institutions such as universities but don’t have consistent policies to handle harassment complaints about researchers they fund. To address this, Congress told the Office of Science and Technology Policy to develop stronger policies and told the National Science Foundation to expand research.
- Women in management. While women make up nearly half of the U.S. workforce, they continue to earn less than men and remain underrepresented in management roles. This has potential long-term implications for women's financial security. In 2021, women working full-time earned an estimated 76 cents for every dollar that men earned across all industries, and the pay gap was greater for managers than for non-managers. Among full-time managers, the pay gap also varied considerably across racial and ethnic groups.
- Sexual harassment at work. Sexual harassment in the workplace can cause harmful psychological, physical, occupational, and economic effects for harassed employees. A 2019 federal survey estimates that more than 1 in 4 employees (29%) at the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) experienced workplace harassment or discrimination based on sex or race/ethnicity. Sexual misconduct has been a challenge within the U.S. Coast Guard for decades. After finding that many sexual misconduct cases were mishandled, the Coast Guard committed to making reforms to address this issue. While the Coast Guard has taken steps to improve, it doesn't have a way to collect feedback from servicemembers on how well the reforms are working.
- Women’s health. Over the course of their lives, women may lack access to healthcare or face health-related risks. Hundreds of women die of complications related to pregnancy and childbirth in the U.S. every year, and Black women are nearly 3 times as likely to die from childbirth as White women. The Department of Health and Human Services’ (HHS) Healthy Start program works to reduce differences in rates of infant deaths and maternal health outcomes. However, this program may be hindered by a lack of clear and reliable performance measures to assess progress. Additionally, to support women who have children, over 200 federal programs provide services like food assistance or childcare. But some of these programs lack processes to ensure that programs meet their goals. Moreover, among women veterans who receive health care from the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), nearly half are at an age when menopause is likely to occur. VA offers care for menopause symptoms, like hot flashes and issues with memory, mood, and sleep. VA is developing recommendations for providing menopause care but these recommendations aren’t complete.
- Domestic violence and sexual assault survivors. Sexual assaults in the United States increased by an estimated 64% from 2021 to 2022. Survivors may seek an exam and related medical treatments from a health care provider, and under federal law, such exams must be free of charge. But coverage for related medical treatments after such exams varies in states, counties, and on tribal lands. Additionally, the Department of Housing and Urban Development requires that its housing providers have emergency transfer plans to move survivors of domestic violence or sexual assault from their current housing unit to one in another location. While most housing providers had emergency transfer plans, they often didn't specify how transfers would take place. Finally, sexual violence survivors in college may suffer academic and financial consequences. Education has loan postponement and repayment options that can help survivors manage their federal student loans.
- Human trafficking. Human trafficking victims are often held in slave-like conditions and forced to work in areas like the commercial sex trade, factories, and agriculture. Given the trauma survivors of human trafficking have experienced, they may need behavioral health services, such as mental health care services or substance use disorder treatment. HHS and the Department of Justice (DOJ) fund grant programs that help provide access to such services. Both departments follow leading practices in administering their survivor assistance programs. However, DOJ didn't set measurable near-term goals for what it expects its program to achieve. Additionally, contractors that work with the U.S. government are prohibited from engaging in human trafficking, but evidence suggests it’s more pervasive than previously thought. Several federal agencies, including DOD, the State Department, and the Department of Homeland Security, have taken some steps to manage trafficking risks in their contracts. However, none use a systematic approach to manage these risks.
- Women in federal custody. The Bureau of Prisons and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) are responsible for making menstrual products accessible to those they incarcerate or detain. Both agencies generally made some menstrual products available, but the Bureau of Prisons has not systematically assessed whether its prisons are fully adhering to the policy. In addition, ICE has a limited ability to identify problems with access to menstrual products because it lacks clear, specific standards. Additionally, the Bureau of Prisons is responsible for implementing the Prison Rape Elimination Act—a law meant to prevent, detect, and respond to sexual abuse in federal prisons. DOJ conducts triennial audits to determine compliance with this act. But there is no requirement for auditors to detect ongoing abuse, and some facilities have passed their audits despite widespread ongoing sexual abuse.
Recent Reports
GAO Contacts
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