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Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on International Organizations, 
Human Rights, and Oversight, Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of 
Representatives: 

United States Government Accountability Office: 
GAO: 

April 2009: 

Higher Education: 

Approaches to Attract and Fund International Students in the United 
States and Abroad: 

GAO-09-379: 

GAO Highlights: 

Highlights of GAO-09-379, a report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on 
International Organizations, Human Rights, and Oversight, Committee on 
Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives. 

Why GAO Did This Study: 

Following September 11, 2001, the number of international students 
coming to the United States dropped for the first time in over 30 
years. While enrollments have rebounded, the U.S. image has declined in 
the Muslim world and elsewhere. To improve global attitudes toward 
America, the U.S. government funds higher education for international 
students to facilitate exchanges, promote understanding among peoples 
in different countries, and build capacity in developing nations. 

To provide insight on how higher education is used to advance public 
diplomacy and development assistance goals, we examined (1) the 
objectives the United States and selected peer governments seek to 
advance through higher education for international students and the 
approaches they employ to attract international students, and (2) the 
characteristics of major U.S. and peer government programs that fund 
higher education for international students to support public diplomacy 
and development goals. GAO collected information from the United 
States, Australia, China, the European Commission, Germany, and the 
United Kingdom. 

What GAO Found: 

The United States and peer governments we reviewed use higher education 
for international students to advance diplomatic, development 
assistance, economic, and other objectives, often concurrently. For 
example, German officials said that international students studying in 
science and technology help advance German research and innovation 
goals while also advancing public diplomacy goals by returning to their 
home countries as unofficial ambassadors for Germany. Germany as well 
as other governments we reviewed use a number of approaches to reach 
and attract overseas students, including marketing their higher 
education to the international community much as a business would 
promote a product. For example, many countries promote their higher 
education systems through national branding, using logos and slogans, 
such as Australia’s “Study in Australia” and the United Kingdom’s “
Education UK” marketing campaigns. Several countries have also taken 
steps to improve the quality of the study abroad experience. China, for 
example, has invested significant resources to modernize its schools 
and added additional academic programs that are aligned with workforce 
needs. 

The scholarship programs we reviewed that support public diplomacy and 
development assistance goals typically select recipients using merit-
based criteria, offer graduate-level study, and cover the cost of 
tuition and other expenses, such as travel and living expenses. 
However, programs vary widely in the countries and regions they target, 
funding levels, and number of scholarships awarded. For example, 
scholarships for public diplomacy programs tended to be dispersed to a 
wider area to maximize their geographic reach. In contrast, development 
assistance programs tend to be more targeted to particular developing 
countries and regions. In administering and implementing these 
programs, government officials cited several strategies they believe 
facilitate program implementation and contribute to successful program 
outcomes. For example, some told us that offering preparatory courses 
or program orientation to all scholarship recipients enhances the 
students’ chance of success at the host university, and is particularly 
useful for students who require additional language, cultural, or 
academic skills. For development assistance programs, some countries 
align the course of study paid for by their programs with the human 
resource and capacity-building needs of the sending country. For 
example, in Australia, officials work with sending governments to 
identify the most acute development needs and consider these with the 
applicant’s proposed field of study when awarding scholarships. 

What GAO Recommends: 

This report does not contain recommendations. Technical comments from 
officials representing the programs discussed in this report were 
incorporated as appropriate. 

View [hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-09-379] or key 
components. For more information, contact George Scott at (202) 512-
7215 or ScottG@gao.gov. 

[End of section] 

Contents: 

Letter: 

Background: 

Governments We Reviewed Use Higher Education to Advance Diplomatic, 
Economic, and Other Objectives and Employ Multiple Approaches to 
Attract International Students: 

Public Diplomacy and Development Assistance Programs We Studied Share 
Key Characteristics: 

Agency Comments: 

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology: 

Appendix II: Percentage of Scholarship Recipients from Each Region by 
Scholarship Program: 

Appendix III: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments: 

Tables: 

Table 1: Selection Criteria, Level of Study Targeted, and Length of 
Award for Selected Scholarship Programs: 

Table 2: Award Amount and Expenses Covered for Selected Scholarship 
Programs: 

Table 3: Governments and Agencies Reviewed as Part of Our Study: 

Figures: 

Figure 1: Estimated Number of International Students Enrolled in U.S. 
Higher Education, 1984-1985 to 2007-2008: 

Figure 2: Top Host Destinations for International Students at the 
Postsecondary Level in 2008: 

Figure 3: National Brands That Germany, Australia, and the United 
Kingdom Respectively Use to Market Their Higher Education Abroad: 

Figure 4: Examples of Materials Used to Provide Information and Promote 
International Study: 

Figure 5: Study in Australia and EducationUSA-Your Guide to U.S. Higher 
Education Web Sites: 

Figure 6: Percentage of Participants from Each Region for the U.S. 
Fulbright Foreign Student Program and the Australian Development 
Scholarships Program: 

Abbreviations: 

OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development: 

USAID: U.S. Agency for International Development: 

[End of section] 

United States Government Accountability Office: 
Washington, DC 20548: 

April 30, 2009: 

The Honorable William D. Delahunt:
Chairman:
Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights, and 
Oversight:
Committee on Foreign Affairs:
House of Representatives: 

After decades of growth in international student enrollment in higher 
education, the total number of international students studying in the 
United States leveled off and even dropped slightly between 2002 and 
2006, the first decline in over 30 years. In the wake of the September 
11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the United States tightened its 
immigration policy, making it difficult for international students to 
come to the United States. Although international enrollment has 
rebounded, and the United States continues to be the leading 
destination for international students, the U.S. image has declined in 
both the Muslim world and among many of America's oldest allies, 
affecting foreign relations and national interests. President Barack 
Obama recently stated that improving relationships with other countries 
is important to promoting American interests and ideals. GAO also 
recently reported that improving the U.S. image abroad is an urgent 
issue needing presidential and congressional attention.[Footnote 1] 

The U.S. government seeks to improve global attitudes toward America 
through a variety of means, including funding higher education in the 
United States for international students. By funding higher education, 
the United States seeks to improve global attitudes by facilitating 
student exchanges that help promote mutual understanding among people 
in different countries (referred to as public diplomacy) and by 
providing assistance to developing nations to build their economic, 
social, and technological capacities (development assistance). To 
address your interest in how higher education is being used to advance 
public diplomacy and development assistance goals in the United States 
and peer nations and to provide Congress with relevant information as 
it considers ways that higher education can be used to advance these 
goals, this report examines (1) the objectives the United States and 
selected peer governments seek to advance through higher education for 
international students and the approaches they employ to attract 
international students, and (2) the characteristics of major United 
States and peer government programs that fund higher education for 
international students to support public diplomacy and development 
goals. 

To conduct our study, we selected two U.S. agencies--the Department of 
State (State) and the U.S. Agency for International Development 
(USAID)--and five peer governments (Australia, China, the European 
Commission, Germany, and the United Kingdom) for review. Though many 
U.S. agencies are involved in promoting U.S. higher education to 
international students, we limited our scope to State and USAID because 
they are primarily responsible for funding programs aimed at public 
diplomacy and development assistance. We selected peer governments 
based on the following criteria: (1) strong market share of 
international enrollment, (2) growth in market share of international 
enrollment, (3) diversity of populations and countries targeted for 
higher education, and (4) geographic diversity. We also conferred with 
embassy and government officials and industry experts to obtain their 
recommendations on which countries to review based on their knowledge 
of their programs. We selected major scholarship programs of the United 
States and peer countries for review based on program funding and 
participation levels, as well as agency and peer government officials' 
recommendations. We broadly defined public diplomacy programs as those 
that help to promote mutual understanding among people from different 
countries, and development programs as those that provide assistance to 
developing nations to build their economic, social, and technological 
capacities. During our exploratory work, we found that peer countries' 
programs often are designed to achieve multiple goals and that these 
multiple goals are not always clearly delineated. Thus, we selected 
programs that had either a public diplomacy or development focus, but 
may also advance other goals for the country, such as recruiting 
students who, after completing their studies, will participate in the 
country's labor market. Though many of the governments we reviewed may 
fund a number of smaller scholarship programs, we limited our study to 
scholarship programs that receive at least $8 million annually, or the 
equivalent in local currency, and award at least 50 scholarship awards 
annually based on the information we received. While our focus was on 
programs that offer education and training in the host country, some of 
the countries we reviewed, including the United States, also offer 
education and training to international students within their home 
nation or a third country. 

In conducting our study, we relied on program information we gathered 
from our interviews of U.S. and cognizant officials from selected peer 
governments we reviewed. Because of the nature of this study, we were 
not able to independently verify or assess the reliability of the data 
provided by the foreign countries we reviewed. Moreover, direct 
comparisons of the United States and other nations' international 
education systems and programs are difficult because these nations' 
higher education financing structure and costs, immigration policies, 
and security concerns differ. 

We conducted our work from March 2008 to April 2009 in accordance with 
all sections of GAO's Quality Assurance Framework that are relevant to 
our objectives. The framework requires that we plan and perform the 
engagement to obtain sufficient and appropriate evidence to meet our 
stated objectives and to discuss any limitations in our work. We 
believe that the information and data obtained, and the analysis 
conducted, provide a reasonable basis for any findings and conclusions. 

Background: 

Following the events of September 11, the total number of international 
students studying in the United States leveled off and even dropped 
slightly after 2002, though enrollment numbers have recently rebounded. 
(See figure 1.) According to the Institute of International Education 
(IIE), the decline in the number of international students attending 
U.S. higher education institutions between 2003 and 2006 was the first 
drop in over 30 years. While the United States continues to be the 
leading destination for international students, the U.S. share of 
international students worldwide dropped--from 26 to 20 percent-- 
between 2000 and 2008.[Footnote 2] (See figure 2.) According to the Pew 
Global Attitudes Project, since 2002 the United States' image has 
declined in both the Muslim world and among many of America's oldest 
allies. In the wake of September 11, the United States also tightened 
its immigration policy and made it more difficult for foreign 
nationals, including international students, to apply for a visa. As we 
previously reported, these changes, made to help protect our nation's 
security interests, may have contributed to our declining share of 
international students and the perception that the United States was an 
unwelcoming place for international students.[Footnote 3] 

Figure 1: Estimated Number of International Students Enrolled in U.S. 
Higher Education, 1984-1985 to 2007-2008: 

[Refer to PDF for image: line graph] 

Year: 1984-1985: 
Number of International Students: 342,113. 

Year: 1985-1986: 
Number of International Students: 343,777. 

Year: 1986-1987: 
Number of International Students: 349,609. 

Year: 1987-1988: 
Number of International Students: 356,187. 

Year: 1988-1989: 
Number of International Students: 366,354. 

Year: 1989-1990: 
Number of International Students: 386,851. 

Year: 1990-1991: 
Number of International Students: 407,529. 

Year: 1991-1992: 
Number of International Students: 419,585. 

Year: 1992-1993: 
Number of International Students: 438,618. 

Year: 1993-1994: 
Number of International Students: 449,749. 

Year: 1994-1995: 
Number of International Students: 452,635. 

Year: 1995-1996: 
Number of International Students: 453,787. 

Year: 1996-1997: 
Number of International Students: 457,984. 

Year: 1997-1998: 
Number of International Students: 481,280. 

Year: 1998-1999: 
Number of International Students: 490,933. 

Year: 1999-2000: 
Number of International Students: 514,723. 

Year: 2000-2001: 
Number of International Students: 547,867. 

Year: 2001-2002: 
Number of International Students: 582,996. 

Year: 2002-2003: 
Number of International Students: 586,323. 

Year: 2003-2004: 
Number of International Students: 572,509. 

Year: 2004-2005: 
Number of International Students: 565,039. 

Year: 2005-2006: 
Number of International Students: 564,766. 

Year: 2006-2007: 
Number of International Students: 582,984. 

Year: 2007-2008: 
Number of International Students: 623,805. 

Source: Institute of International Education data. 

[End of figure] 

Figure 2: Top Host Destinations for International Students at the 
Postsecondary Level in 2008: 

[Refer to PDF for image: pie-chart] 

United States: 20%; 
United Kingdom: 18%; 
France: 8%; 
Germany: 8%; 
Australia: 7%; 
China: 7%; 
Canada: 5%; 
Japan: 4%; 
All others: 28%. 

Estimated total: 2.9 million students. 

Source: Institute of International Education (based on Project Atlas 
2007 data and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural 
Organization/Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 
2006 data). 

[End of figure] 

The U.S. government seeks to improve global attitudes toward America 
through diplomatic and development assistance efforts, which include 
funding higher education for international students in the United 
States.[Footnote 4] Many of the programs that support these efforts are 
administered through the Department of State's Bureau of Educational 
and Cultural Affairs, which funds programs aimed at advancing public 
diplomacy goals, and the United States Agency for International 
Development, which is primarily concerned with providing assistance to 
developing nations. These efforts typically create face-to-face 
exchange opportunities with foreign students, researchers, 
professionals, and educators to provide a better understanding of a 
nation's views, values, and culture. The United States also funds 
higher education for international students to help developing nations 
alleviate poverty and promote peace and security, public health, 
economic growth, education, and democratization. These programs target 
the economic, social, or technological needs of developing nations by 
equipping students and professionals for future leadership roles in 
their communities, businesses, and governments and to fill critical 
labor and skill gaps. 

While the federal government funds education for international students 
to achieve public diplomacy and development objectives, the vast 
majority of students who come to the United States to study do not 
receive funding from the U.S. government. According to the Institute of 
International Education's Open Doors 2008 report, 623,805 students came 
to the United States to study during the 2007-2008 academic year and 
nearly 9 out of 10 international students reported their primary source 
of funding for education as coming from either personal and family 
sources or from their host college or university in the United States. 
Although the primary source of funds for the vast majority of students 
that enter the United States is not provided by the federal government, 
promoting study in the United States can support a range of U.S. 
objectives in addition to the public diplomacy and development goals 
supported by State and USAID efforts. For example, the United States 
has relied on undergraduate and graduate students from other countries 
as important sources of innovation and productivity in our increasingly 
knowledge-based economy. Such students who remain in the country after 
completing their studies have brought needed research and workforce 
skills and strengthened our labor force. For example, international 
students have earned about one-third or more of the degrees at both the 
master's and doctoral levels in engineering, math and computer science, 
and the physical sciences.[Footnote 5] 

Governments We Reviewed Use Higher Education to Advance Diplomatic, 
Economic, and Other Objectives and Employ Multiple Approaches to 
Attract International Students: 

Governments We Reviewed Use International Education to Advance 
Diplomatic, Economic, and Other Objectives, Often Simultaneously: 

All of the governments we reviewed fund higher education for 
international students to advance diplomatic, development, economic, 
and other objectives, often simultaneously. For example, Australian 
officials said that international higher education helps Australia 
achieve economic goals. Education was Australia's third largest export 
and contributed $15.5 billion in Australian dollars (about $13 billion 
in U.S. dollars) to its economy in 2008.[Footnote 6] According to 
Australian officials, international students also help Australia meet 
its foreign relations and diplomatic goals. To illustrate the 
diplomatic linkages that education can create, Australian officials 
said that at one time nearly half of the Malaysian cabinet had been 
educated in Australia. Australian officials reported that student 
exchange is Australia's primary way of providing a contemporary 
understanding of the country, building linkages between Australia and 
foreign nations, forming the basis of business and cultural 
relationships, demonstrating the quality of Australia's educational 
opportunities, and helping to dispel the myth that Australia is a "far 
away land." The Australian government also provides development 
assistance to Asian countries and Pacific Islands to increase their 
access to high-quality education and training, which supports growth in 
the region. These development assistance efforts also build enduring 
links at the individual, institutional, and country levels, according 
to Australian officials. 

Chinese officials told us that by promoting international student study 
in China, they are able to advance goals aimed at promoting peaceful 
and common development of all countries. According to these officials, 
providing international educational opportunities to foreign students 
is part of their strategy for promoting cultural, scientific, and 
technological exchanges between the East and the West. China develops 
exchanges with other countries in the fields of education, science, and 
technology to strengthen friendship and understanding between the 
Chinese people and people around the world and to promote modernization 
in China. China reported that its collaboration with foreign 
universities and educational institutions helps to develop an exchange 
network that allows it to send "the best students to study in the best 
universities under the supervision of the best advisers," mutually 
benefiting institutions and countries. 

According to officials from Germany's national agency that supports 
international education, international students help Germany advance 
several goals, including increasing the international appeal of German 
universities and promoting the academic, economic, and democratic 
development of developing countries. German officials said that their 
ability to advance several goals simultaneously is an important 
strength of international education. For example, international 
students studying in science and technology help advance German 
research and innovation goals while also advancing public diplomacy 
goals by returning to their home countries as unofficial ambassadors 
for Germany. 

Officials in the United Kingdom (UK) reported that international 
education contributes to building a high-skilled workforce, helps build 
relationships with people from around the world, enhances understanding 
about each others' cultures, and opens doors to trade, investment, and 
political influence. The European Union (EU) also seeks to advance 
several international education goals, including promoting 
intercultural understanding through cooperation with non-European 
countries as well as ensuring that education and training are 
accessible to the global community. 

In the United States, the federal government similarly seeks to advance 
multiple goals simultaneously through international higher education. 
For example, the United States is able to advance both diplomatic and 
country development goals through higher education by reaching out to 
students in developing countries and equipping them with the skills and 
knowledge needed to support efforts in their own countries. In 
addition, the United States has historically relied on international 
students to fill critical skill gaps in the economy and, in particular, 
has relied heavily on international students to fill critical skill 
gaps in science, math, engineering, and technology fields. Finally, 
international education also contributed $15.5 billion to U.S. economy 
in 2007-2008, according to data from the Department of Commerce. 

Governments Employ a Number of Approaches to Attract International 
Students, Such as Marketing Their Higher Education Internationally: 

To advance public diplomacy, development, and other national goals, the 
governments we reviewed use a number of approaches to introduce 
international students to their higher education systems. To promote 
their higher education systems internationally, countries like the 
United Kingdom, Germany, and Australia have developed broad marketing 
strategies with a focus on outreach to international students. These 
marketing strategies include developing a national brand through the 
use of logos and slogans to promote higher education systems among 
international communities, much as a corporation would promote a 
commercial brand, as shown in figure 3. 

Figure 3: National Brands That Germany, Australia, and the United 
Kingdom Respectively Use to Market Their Higher Education Abroad: 

[Refer to PDF for image: illustration] 

This figure contains illustrations of the following slogans: 

"Study in Germany: Land of Ideas" 

"Study in Australia: Live. Learn. Grow." 

"Education UK: Innovation. Individual. Inspirational." 

Sources: The German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), Australian 
Education International, and the British Council. 

[End of figure] 

For example, many of the higher education institutions in the United 
Kingdom use the national brand "Education UK-Innovative.Individual. 
Inspirational." to distinguish United Kingdom higher educational 
institutions from others. This United Kingdom national brand and its 
associated logo are used for products, activities, events, and 
marketing campaigns aimed at promoting United Kingdom education. 
Similarly, Germany's higher education national brand "Study in Germany- 
Land of Ideas" appears in various promotion efforts, including 
advertisements, and at educational fairs.[Footnote 7] Australia 
promotes its international study opportunities through the "Study in 
Australia" campaign with the "Live.Learn.Grow." slogan. According to 
Australian officials, the "Study in Australia" campaign is used to 
highlight the quality of Australia's education system, the country's 
unique lifestyle, and the personal growth that comes from an 
international education experience in Australia. The national brand is 
used in various promotion channels, including the Study in Australia 
Web site, education exhibitions, student forums in target markets, and 
traditional advertising media such as print, radio, and television. See 
figure 4 for samples of promotion brochures from selected countries. 

Figure 4: Examples of Materials Used to Provide Information and Promote 
International Study: 

[Refer to PDF for image: illustration] 

This figure contains illustrations of promotional materials from 
Australia, United States, China, Germany, and Europe. 

Sources: From top left to bottom right: Australian Education 
International; China Scholarship Council; U.S. Department of State;
© The German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD); and the Delegation of 
the European Commission to the US Science, Technology and Education 
Section (copyright November 2008). 

[End of figure] 

In addition, all of the governments we reviewed have developed Web 
sites to inform potential students about their academic options, 
application procedures, student support services, and lifestyles within 
that country; and in the case of the European Commission, the Web site 
provides similar information on 32 European countries.[Footnote 8] 
These Web sites are typically provided in several languages and offer a 
range of information on issues such as academic programs, visa 
requirements, higher education financing options, and predeparture 
advice. For example, prospective students accessing Australia's Study 
in Australia Web site can find a range of information including 
language and academic requirements, study costs and available 
scholarships, and listings of accredited Australian institutions and 
available courses.[Footnote 9] The Web site also describes life and 
culture in Australia as well as the benefits of study in Australia, 
such as the types of student support services and the cultural 
diversity of the country. In addition, the Web site provides students 
points of contact for further inquiry, including country-specific 
alumni networks and Australian education advisers stationed in-country. 
Web site information is available in multiple languages, many of which 
are languages spoken in the region, such as Indonesian, Japanese, Thai, 
and Vietnamese. See figure 5 for examples of Web sites. 

The United States provides an online guide for international students 
on higher education called EducationUSA.[Footnote 10] The Web site 
provides guidance on a number of areas, including how to select a 
school, find English language training programs, apply for a visa, and 
obtain financial assistance. It also provides information on the 
benefits of a U.S. education, such as the accreditation system that 
helps ensure higher education institutions maintain quality standards 
for their faculty, curriculum, administration, and student services. 
Practical information on predeparture preparations, such as travel and 
housing arrangements, and everyday living in the United States, are 
also included on the Web site. Potential students are directed to 
advising centers stationed around the world for additional information 
and assistance. The Web site provides information and resources to 
potential students in six languages, including Arabic, Chinese, and 
French. 

Figure 5: Study in Australia and EducationUSA-Your Guide to U.S. Higher 
Education Web Sites: 

[Refer to PDF for image: illustrations] 

This figure contains screen shots of the two web sites. 

Sources: Commonwealth of Australia 2008 and U.S. Department of State. 

[End of figure] 

Australia, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States also 
conduct outreach to international students through their overseas 
information centers. These centers are designed to facilitate in- 
country outreach and provide information and guidance to prospective 
international students. They also help to develop strategic 
partnerships with foreign governments and educational institutions. 
According to officials, Australia has a network of 25 international 
offices that are staffed with over 100 individuals, 15 of whom have 
been accredited by the Australian government to be education advisers, 
who work with the international education community to promote 
Australian education worldwide. In addition to conducting outreach 
activities, the network also collects and provides information on the 
international education market, including business opportunities in 
established and emerging markets, to higher education subscribers in 
Australia. According to United Kingdom officials, the United Kingdom 
relies on a network of international offices located in over 100 
nations around the world to facilitate education and cultural linkages 
among the United Kingdom and potential students, foreign education 
institutions, and governments.[Footnote 11] Similarly, Germany relies 
on a global network of 48 information centers to promote Germany's 
higher education system.[Footnote 12] The United States has a network 
of more than 450 advising centers around the world, called EducationUSA 
Advising Centers. Centers are staffed by professional advisers, many of 
whom studied in the United States themselves and have received State 
Department-approved training about U.S. higher education and the 
advising process.[Footnote 13] While the reported levels of services 
and capabilities offered by the overseas information centers vary from 
country to country, government officials stressed that their network of 
offices is valuable because its staff possess expertise in 
international education, understand the education systems of the 
regions in which they operate, and have essential contacts, including 
contacts at education ministries and local higher education 
institutions. 

All governments we reviewed reported that ensuring that international 
students receive a quality education and experience abroad is another 
key component of their approach to outreach to international students. 
In the face of growing domestic and international demand for higher 
education, China has invested significant resources to enhance the 
institutional and human resource capacities of its higher education 
institutions in the last 10 years. The steps taken to increase 
institutional capacity include encouraging private funding for China's 
higher education and modernization of schools' facilities and 
equipment. In addition, officials said that China has consolidated 
specialized schools, such as engineering and art schools, and added 
additional academic programs to create institutions with more of a 
comprehensive breadth of curricula, making them more adaptable to 
employment needs and improving the schools' resources through economies 
of scale. Further, education officials said that China provides 
leadership training to its senior management staff through 
international exchange programs with various Western countries to 
enhance the human capacity of China's higher education institutions. 

European countries are also taking these steps to help ensure that 
their higher education and research systems continuously adapt to 
changing needs, society's demands, and advances in scientific 
knowledge, as well as to gain a "worldwide degree of attractiveness." 
For example, under the Bologna Declaration of June 1999, European 
countries established a series of reforms to make European higher 
education more compatible and comparable across member states, 
including the adoption of comparable undergraduate and graduate degrees 
and a system of credits.Currently, 46 European countries participate in 
the Bologna process.[Footnote 14] To increase the quality and 
effectiveness of education and training programs in the European Union, 
the European Commission has also established working groups in 12 
areas, including the education and training of teachers and trainers. 

To ensure overseas students have a positive educational experience, the 
UK Council for International Student Affairs, an education charity, 
acts as the UK's national advisory body serving the interests of 
overseas students and those who work with them, according to officials 
from the United Kingdom. This advisory body encourages best practices, 
professional development, and institutional support for international 
students. For example, the UK Council for International Student Affairs 
provides guidance to students and higher education partners in a number 
of areas, such as immigration policies, financial planning, and cross- 
cultural issues. 

Further, the Australian government, through enacted legislation and 
regulations, provides "consumer protections" of overseas students. 
These protections include alternative course placement for students 
whose education provider cannot offer a particular course, and making 
refunds to students when no such placement is possible. Australia also 
established an international arm within its government to provide 
leadership across all levels of government and industry, ensure that 
overseas students have a quality study abroad experience, and support 
the country's international education industry. 

Public Diplomacy and Development Assistance Programs We Studied Share 
Key Characteristics: 

The Programs We Reviewed Generally Offer Merit-Based Scholarships 
Targeted to Graduate Students: 

The major scholarship programs we reviewed that support public 
diplomacy and development assistance goals typically select recipients 
using merit-based criteria, offer graduate-level study, and cover the 
cost of tuition and some other expenses. For example, the Australian 
Development Scholarships program selects high-achieving students, 
mostly for graduate-level study, through a competitive selection 
process that is coordinated between Australian officials and partner 
governments.[Footnote 15] Selection criteria are usually established 
bilaterally between the Australian government and the applicant's home 
government, and students who are nominated must also be accepted by the 
receiving higher education institution in Australia. The program awards 
90 percent of its scholarships for graduate-level study, making a small 
percentage available to those wishing to pursue undergraduate or 
vocational study. Australian Development Scholarship awards include 
tuition, travel, health insurance, and allowances to cover study 
materials, living expenses, and other participation-related costs. In 
addition, these awards may also cover English-language training, 
tutorial assistance, and a mandatory 4-to 6-week course designed to 
prepare students for life and study in Australia. According to program 
officials, approximately $45,000 in Australian dollars (about $38,000 
U.S. in dollars) is awarded to selected students in tuition and other 
expenses per year. 

Although the European Union's Erasmus Mundus program has differing 
objectives, it also awards scholarships on the basis of academic merit 
to graduate students.[Footnote 16] In the past, the program offered 
scholarships only for master's-level study for 1-to 2-year periods, but 
will also begin offering scholarships for doctoral study for up to 3 
years starting in 2010. Under this program, individual courses of study 
are developed by consortia of universities within the European Union 
and these consortia are given considerable latitude in selecting 
applicants. The program's administering agency recommends that each 
consortium assess the quality of eligible applicants based on criteria 
such as academic record, exam results, and letters of recommendation. 
Unlike other scholarship programs we reviewed, the Erasmus Mundus 
program awards a fixed amount to recipients annually, which was 21,000 
euros in 2008 (about $31,000 in U.S. dollars)[Footnote 17]. While 
tuition and fees vary widely among European universities, in most 
instances, the award amount is greater than the cost of attendance, 
allowing recipients to use the balance of the award to defray other 
participation-related expenses, according to program officials. 

The U.S. Fulbright Foreign Student Program, which supports public 
diplomacy goals, follows a similar approach in awarding merit-based 
scholarships to graduate students. The program selects scholarship 
recipients through a competitive process that considers input from a 
scholarship board, U.S. embassies, and other organizations. 
Applications are generally restricted to students who meet certain 
citizenship requirements and who will have received the equivalent of a 
bachelor's degree prior to the start of the grant period.[Footnote 18] 
In selecting scholarship recipients, the program considers the 
applicant's academic record and a research project proposal, among 
other factors. Once award recipients are selected, the Fulbright 
Foreign Student Program allows them to matriculate in either degree- 
granting or nondegree master's and Ph.D. programs, some of which may be 
renewed for up to 5 years; however, most awards are for 1 or 2 years of 
study. Similar to other scholarship programs we reviewed, the 
scholarships awarded by the program cover a range of participation- 
related costs, including tuition, educational materials, travel, 
housing, living allowances (which vary by U.S. host location), 
orientation, and health coverage. According to program officials, these 
scholarships are awarded in amounts up to $60,000 per recipient 
annually, but on average total about $32,000 per year. 

Similarly, other scholarship programs we reviewed, such as the Chinese 
Government Scholarships Program, the United Kingdom's Chevening 
Programme, the U.S. Edmund S. Muskie Graduate Fellowship Program, and 
German Study Scholarships and Research Grants all award merit-based 
scholarships, primarily to graduate students. Though award amounts 
vary, the scholarships generally cover similar costs related to 
participation, including tuition, living, and other expenses. 

Although most scholarship programs we reviewed award merit-based 
scholarships to graduate-level students, a few programs award 
scholarships for undergraduate or vocational study, and some consider 
need-based criteria in the selection process. For example, the U.S. 
Cooperative Association of States for Scholarships program, 
administered by USAID, funds study for high-achieving, low-income 
students who might not otherwise have access to higher education. 
[Footnote 19] USAID officials say that by establishing relationships 
with impoverished communities in the sending countries, the Cooperative 
Association of States for Scholarships program has taken steps to 
ensure that the low-income populations targeted by the program are 
those that receive the awards. However, officials also acknowledged 
that an applicant's income or wealth may be difficult to verify 
depending on the depth, soundness, and transparency of the financial 
system in the applicant's home country. Additionally, unlike most 
programs we reviewed, the U.S. Global Undergraduate Exchange Program 
awards all of its scholarships to undergraduate students. According to 
program officials, shorter, non-degree-granting scholarships may be 
more appropriate for vocational or undergraduate participants because 
they help ensure students return and reintegrate into their home 
societies. However, program officials in the United States and abroad 
said that undergraduate students' career goals are often evolving and 
their career trajectories less well defined. For this reason, U.S. and 
foreign officials said that graduate students, who have already 
committed to a field of study, may be better suited for some program 
goals, such as building leadership and making technological advances. 
See table 1 for the criteria countries used to select applicants for 
the scholarship programs we reviewed. 

Table 1: Selection Criteria, Level of Study Targeted, and Length of 
Award for Selected Scholarship Programs: 

Public diplomacy: 

Host government and program name: Australian Endeavour Awards; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit; 
Level of study targeted: Mostly graduate; 
Length of award[A]: 2-3 years. 

Host government and program name: Chinese Government Scholarships 
Program[B]; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit; 
Level of study targeted: Graduate and undergraduate; 
Length of award[A]: 1-7 years. 

Host government and program name: EU Erasmus Mundus; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit; 
Level of study targeted: Only graduate; 
Length of award[A]: 1-2 years. 

Host government and program name: German Academic Exchange Service 
Study Scholarships and Research Grants[C]; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit; 
Level of study targeted: Mostly graduate; 
Length of award[A]: 1 year. 

Host government and program name: UK Chevening Programme[D]; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit; 
Level of study targeted: Mostly graduate; 
Length of award[A]: 2-4 years. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Edmund S. Muskie Graduate 
Fellowship Program; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit; 
Level of study targeted: Only graduate; 
Length of award[A]: 1-2 years. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Fulbright Foreign Student 
Program; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit; 
Level of study targeted: Only graduate; 
Length of award[A]: 1-5 years. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Global Undergraduate Exchange 
Program; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit; 
Level of study targeted: Only undergraduate; 
Length of award[A]: 0.5-1 year. 

Development assistance: 

Host government and program name: Australian Development Scholarships; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit; 
Level of study targeted: Mostly graduate; 
Length of award[A]: 2-4 years. 

Host government and program name: Australian Leadership Awards 
Scholarships; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit; 
Level of study targeted: Mostly graduate; 
Length of award[A]: 2-4 years. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Collaborative Research Support 
Programs; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit; 
Level of study targeted: Mostly graduate; 
Length of award[A]: 1-5 years. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Cooperative Association of 
States for Scholarships; 
Type of selection criteria considered: Merit and need; 
Level of study targeted: Vocational; 
Length of award[A]: 2 years. 

Sources: Australian Department of Education, Employment, and Workplace 
Relations; Australian Agency for International Development; Chinese 
Ministry of Education; European Commission's Education, Audiovisual, 
and Culture Executive Agency; U.S. Agency for International 
Development; and U.S. Department of State. 

Notes: Information is from academic year 2007 or is more recent. Time 
periods may have differed slightly among the reporting countries, so 
the data are generally but not directly comparable among programs. 

[A] This represents the range of duration in academic years of 
scholarships awarded to students for postsecondary study. Length may 
differ depending on the level of study and whether the scholarship is 
renewed by the host country. 

[B] The Chinese Government Scholarships Program offers full and partial 
scholarships for study in China to undergraduates, graduates, language 
students, and visiting scholars. 

[C] Characteristics represent a combination of the German Academic 
Exchange Service's two main scholarship programs: Study Scholarships 
for Graduates of All Disciplines and Research Grants for Doctoral 
Candidates and Young Academics. 

[D] Characteristics represent the UK Chevening Programme's core 
scholarship scheme. 

[End of table] 

Programs Differ in Some Characteristics, Including Geographic Reach and 
Funding Levels: 

Although the programs we studied share key characteristics, they also 
vary widely in their geographic reach, annual funding levels, and their 
annual participation levels. Many of the large public diplomacy 
programs we studied tend to make scholarships available to students 
from a wide range of countries, typically 40 or more, in order to 
maximize their diplomatic reach. For example, the European Union's 
Erasmus Mundus program, a public diplomacy program, awarded 
scholarships to students from 113 countries in 2008, with no single 
region receiving more than 27 percent of the scholarships awarded. The 
agency administering the Erasmus Mundus strives to achieve a wide 
geographic balance, in part by ensuring that no more than a quarter of 
scholarships awarded by a particular consortium go to students from one 
country. Scholarships offered by the U.S. Fulbright Foreign Student 
Program, another public diplomacy program, also have a wide geographic 
reach, awarding scholarships to recipients from 143 countries in 2008. 
However, some public diplomacy programs have a more targeted reach. For 
example, the Australia Endeavour Awards has a regional focus, with over 
80 percent of scholarships widely dispersed to students from Asian and 
Pacific countries. Additionally, the U.S. Edmund S. Muskie Graduate 
Program targets its scholarships exclusively to applicants from the 
countries that formerly constituted the Soviet Union. 

In contrast, the development assistance programs we studied tend to 
have a more targeted focus in order to better concentrate resources in 
particular developing countries. For example, Australia's two largest 
development assistance programs--the Australian Development 
Scholarships and the Australian Leadership Awards--focus primarily on 
the Asia and Pacific regions, though the Australian Development 
Scholarships also awards approximately 9 percent of its scholarships to 
applicants from Africa. Likewise, the U.S. Collaborative Research 
Support Program also has some regional concentration, awarding nearly 
two-thirds of its scholarships to students from Africa and Latin 
America. In 2007, according to data provided by education officials, we 
estimate that China awarded roughly 20 percent of its scholarships to 
students from Africa. Some of the other development assistance programs 
we studied have an even more targeted focus. The U.S. Cooperative 
Association of States for Scholarships Program and its successor 
program, for example, have awarded scholarships exclusively to students 
from seven countries in Central America and the Caribbean during the 
past 5 years. A component of the European Union's Erasmus Mundus 
program also targets its scholarships to particular regions based on 
the political and development assistance priorities of the European 
Union and of partner countries.[Footnote 20] See appendix II for the 
percentage of scholarship recipients from each region by scholarship 
program. Figure 6 provides an illustration of the differences in 
geographic reach typically found between the public diplomacy and 
development aid scholarship programs we reviewed. 

Figure 6: Percentage of Participants from Each Region for the U.S. 
Fulbright Foreign Student Program and the Australian Development 
Scholarships Program: 

[Refer to PDF for image: world map and two pie-charts] 

Australian Development Scholarships (development assistance): 
East Asia and the Pacific: 81%; 
South and Central Asia: 9%; 
Africa: 8%; 
Europe and Eurasia: 1%. 

U.S. Fulbright Foreign Student Program (public diplomacy): 
Europe and Eurasia: 30%; 
Western Hemisphere: 29%; 
East Asia and the Pacific: 16%; 
Near East: 9%; 
South and Central Asia: 9%; 
Africa: 8%. 

Source: GAO analysis, map (Art Explosion). 

Notes: Totals may not equal 100 percent because of rounding. 

[End of figure] 

In addition to these differences, annual funding and participation 
levels vary widely among the programs we studied and change from year 
to year, though the largest programs we studied tend to have public 
diplomacy goals, as shown in table 2. For example, the European Union's 
Erasmus Mundus program and the U.S. Fulbright Foreign Student Program, 
both public diplomacy programs, receive over $90 million in 
funding.[Footnote 21] One exception was the Australian Development 
Scholarships Program, the most well-funded development assistance 
program we reviewed, which received over $101 million in Australian 
dollars in 2008 ($84 million in U.S. dollars). However, most of the 
public diplomacy and development assistance programs we reviewed 
received less than $50 million in U.S. dollars in annual funding last 
year. Participation levels in 2008 also varied widely among the 
programs we studied, with programs awarding scholarships to as few as 
67 recipients in the case of the U.S. Collaborative Research Support 
Program to as many as 3,747 recipients in the case of the Chinese 
Government Scholarships Program. 

Table 2: Award Amount and Expenses Covered for Selected Scholarship 
Programs: 

Public diplomacy: 

Host government and program name: Australian Endeavour Awards; 
Annual funding level (U.S. dollars in millions)[A]: 35 Australian 
dollars ($29); 
Annual participation level[B]: 391; 
Maximum or average annual award amount (U.S. dollars)[C]: Maximum of 
52,800 Australian dollars ($44,289)[D]; 
Expenses covered under scholarship award: Tuition,[E] travel, 
establishment allowance, a contribution to living expenses, and travel 
and health insurance. 

Host government and program name: Chinese Government Scholarships 
Program[F]; 
Annual funding level (U.S. dollars in millions)[A]: Data not available; 
Annual participation level[B]: 3,747; 
Maximum or average annual award amount (U.S. dollars)[C]: Data not 
available; 
Expenses covered under scholarship award: Tuition, travel allowance, 
educational materials, establishment allowance, a contribution to 
living expenses, and health insurance. 

Host government and program name: EU Erasmus Mundus; 
Annual funding level (U.S. dollars in millions)[A]: 93 euros ($136); 
Annual participation level[B]: 1,957; 
Maximum or average annual award amount (U.S. dollars)[C]: Average of 
21,000 euros ($30,761); 
Expenses covered under scholarship award: Annual award is a fixed 
amount that typically covers tuition and may defray other participation-
related expenses. 

Host government and program name: German Academic Exchange Service 
Study Scholarships and Research Grants[G]; 
Annual funding level (U.S. dollars in millions)[A]: 33 euros ($48); 
Annual participation level[B]: 2,800; 
Maximum or average annual award amount (U.S. dollars)[C]: Maximum of 
30,000 euros ($43,945)[H]; 
Expenses covered under scholarship award: Tuition, travel, health 
insurance, living allowances, marital or child allowance under certain 
conditions,[I] research allowance, and preparatory language instruction 
if necessary. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Edmund S. Muskie Graduate 
Fellowship Program; 
Annual funding level (U.S. dollars in millions)[A]: $9; 
Annual participation level[B]: 145; 
Maximum or average annual award amount (U.S. dollars)[C]: Average of 
$42,775; 
Expenses covered under scholarship award: Tuition, travel allowance, 
educational materials, housing, monthly allowances, and a preparatory 
orientation program. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Fulbright Foreign Student 
Program; 
Annual funding level (U.S. dollars in millions)[A]: $95; 
Annual participation level[B]: 3,204; 
Maximum or average annual award amount (U.S. dollars)[C]: Average of 
$32,000; 
Expenses covered under scholarship award: Tuition, travel allowance, 
educational materials, housing, monthly living allowances (which vary 
by U.S. host location), orientation, and health and accident coverage. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Global Undergraduate Exchange 
Program; 
Annual funding level (U.S. dollars in millions)[A]: 
Annual participation level[B]: 452; 
Maximum or average annual award amount (U.S. dollars)[C]: Average of 
$20,400; 
Expenses covered under scholarship award: Tuition, travel allowance, 
educational materials, housing, monthly living allowances, and cultural 
experiences. 

Development assistance: 

Host government and program name: Australian Development Scholarships; 
Annual funding level (U.S. dollars in millions)[A]: 101 Australian 
dollars ($85); 
Annual participation level[B]: 1,100; 
Maximum or average annual award amount (U.S. dollars)[C]: Average of 
45,000 Australian dollars ($37,746); 
Expenses covered under scholarship award: Tuition, travel,[J] visa 
expenses, establishment allowance, contribution to living expenses, 
preparatory language and academic courses, health care coverage, 
fieldwork. 

Host government and program name: Australian Leadership Awards 
Scholarships; 
Annual funding level (U.S. dollars in millions)[A]: 18 Australian 
dollars ($15); 
Annual participation level[B]: 150; 
Maximum or average annual award amount (U.S. dollars)[C]: Maximum of 
62,000 Australian dollars ($52,006); 
Expenses covered under scholarship award: Tuition, travel, visa 
expenses, establishment allowance, contribution to living expenses, 
leadership development program, health care coverage, study enrichment 
allowance[K]. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Collaborative Research Support 
Programs; 
Annual funding level (U.S. dollars in millions)[A]: $23; 
Annual participation level[B]: 67; 
Maximum or average annual award amount (U.S. dollars)[C]: Average of 
$41,245; 
Expenses covered under scholarship award: Expenses covered may include 
tuition, travel, research equipment, and a contribution toward other 
expenses. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Cooperative Association of 
States for Scholarships; 
Annual funding level (U.S. dollars in millions)[A]: $10; 
Annual participation level[B]: 162; 
Maximum or average annual award amount (U.S. dollars)[C]: Average of 
$19,820; 
Expenses covered under scholarship award: Tuition, travel, education 
materials, visa expenses, housing expenses, a contribution toward 
living expenses, orientation including medical exams, program seminars 
and workshops, and a reentry seminar upon returning home. 

Sources: Australian Department of Education, Employment, and Workplace 
Relations; Australian Agency for International Development; Chinese 
Ministry of Education; European Commission's Education, Audiovisual, 
and Culture Executive Agency; German Academic Exchange Service; U.S. 
Agency for International Development; and U.S. Department of State. 

Notes: Information is from fiscal year 2007 or is more recent. Time 
periods may have differed slightly among the reporting countries so the 
data are generally but not directly comparable between programs. For 
foreign programs, currency is converted to U.S. dollars at annualized 
exchange rate for the latest year data are available. 

[A] Amount shown is the program wide funding level for the latest year 
data are available. This funding may cover expenses such as program 
administration in addition to scholarship awards. 

[B] Number of scholarships awarded to students for the latest year data 
are available. 

[C] Amount shown is the maximum or average amount (as indicated) 
awarded to scholarship recipients for the latest year data is 
available. 

[D] Amount shown represents the maximum annualized scholarship awarded 
to Endeavour Postgraduate Award recipients. 

[E] Dependent on the type of award, tuition fees are not payable under 
all Australia Endeavour Awards. 

[F] The Chinese Government Scholarships Program offers full and partial 
scholarships for study in China to undergraduates, graduates, language 
students, and visiting scholars. 

[G] Funding, participation level, and other characteristics represent a 
combination of the German Academic Exchange Service's two main 
scholarship programs: Study Scholarships for Graduates of All 
Disciplines and Research Grants for Doctoral Candidates and Young 
Academics. 

[H] In some special cases award amounts may include up to 45,000 euros 
($65,917). 

[I] Recipients may receive an additional 600 euros ($879) per year for 
each dependent accompanying them. 

[J] In addition to roundtrip airfare, includes a reunion airfare 
entitlement for students with no family accompanying them. 

[K] May include a contribution toward field research, academic support, 
conference participation, or the award holder's reunion travel costs. 

[End of table] 

According to foreign officials, some governments have revised 
scholarship program funding and participation levels in recent years to 
reflect changing national objectives, such as placing a greater 
emphasis on making their higher education systems more visible. For 
example, over the past 5 years, the European Union has increased 
funding levels for the Erasmus Mundus program by more than tenfold to 
93 million euros ($136 million in U.S. dollars) annually, and plans to 
spend 950 million euros ($1.39 billion in U.S. dollars) on the program 
over the next 5 years. Moreover, some program officials from Australia 
told us that they anticipate funding and participation levels for the 
Endeavour Awards scholarship programs to continue to increase in the 
coming years. However, funding and participation for at least one major 
scholarship program have been reduced in recent years. Specifically, 
the number of scholarships offered by the United Kingdom's Chevening 
Programme core scholarship scheme has declined from over 1,500 in 2004 
to around 1,000 in more recent years. 

Officials Highlighted Strategies They Say Are Key to the Successful 
Implementation of Scholarship Programs: 

Officials that administer both public diplomacy and development 
assistance programs cite several strategies that they say facilitate 
program implementation and contribute to successful program outcomes. 
Some told us that offering preparatory courses or program orientation 
to all scholarship recipients enhances the students' chance of success 
at the host university, and is particularly useful for students who 
require additional language, cultural, or academic skills. For example, 
the Australian Development Scholarships and Australian Leaderships 
Awards, both managed by the Australia's Agency for International 
Development, requires scholars to complete a 4-to 6-week introductory 
academic program that covers information on life and study in Australia 
prior to the commencement of formal academic studies. In addition to 
this program, the Australian Development Scholarships also provides 
precourse English classes. Further, the Chinese Government Scholarships 
Program requires recipients who do not meet minimum language 
proficiency standards to take up to a year of intensive Chinese- 
language training upon arrival in China. Depending on the needs of the 
student, this language training may continue once their academic 
program begins. Similarly, to aid students in their transition to the 
United States, USAID requires all Cooperative Association of States for 
Scholarships recipients to participate in predeparture orientation 
training. During this training, participants also receive program- 
required health exams, and they complete the steps necessary to obtain 
their student visas. 

Some development assistance officials also highlighted the importance 
of aligning the courses of study offered by their programs with the 
human resource and capacity building needs of the sending country. For 
example, USAID officials said that fields of study offered by the U.S. 
Cooperative Association of States for Scholarships program are 
determined based on a review of the development needs and employment 
trends of the country. According to officials, this, along with the 
support of the sending countries' governments and private business 
sectors, helps students to obtain a job once they return to their 
country. In Australia, officials work with sending governments to 
identify the most acute development needs and consider these with the 
applicant's proposed field of study when awarding scholarships. 

In keeping with their goal of advancing human resource capacity in 
sending countries, development assistance programs typically seek to 
return participants to their home country upon completing their program 
of study. For example, recipients of all Australian Agency for 
International Development scholarships are expected to return to their 
country of citizenship for at least 2 years after completing their 
scholarship program. To enforce this obligation, Australia requires 
development scholarship recipients to sign a contract agreeing to 
return to their home country for 2 years. If they return to Australia 
before the 2-year period is up, they incur a debt to the Australian 
government equal to the full value of the scholarship. This operates as 
a strong disincentive for students to stay in Australia after 
completing their study program, and it results in a student return rate 
of 95 percent or better, according to Australian officials. However, 
this does not guarantee that students will stay in their home countries 
for 2 years. One official noted that many alumni choose to move to 
another country shortly after returning home. All USAID exchange 
visitors are required to sign a form in which they agree, among other 
things, to return home immediately upon completion of their program. 
[Footnote 22] Recipients of some USAID programs are also required to 
sign a contract agreeing to return home within 3 days of completing 
their program. According to USAID officials, this is effective in 
ensuring students return home and fulfill program objectives. Officials 
said that 86 percent of participants in its Collaborative Research 
Support Programs return to a developing country after graduation. 

Finally, officials noted the importance of developing active alumni 
networks. Officials told us that having strong alumni networks better 
enables them to reach future applicants, track alumni, and assess their 
careers and accomplishments as well as perceptions of their 
international study experience. These networks also provide a means 
through which alumni can receive support from their former host country 
and help facilitate enduring relationships between students and the 
host country once their tour of study has ended. For these reasons, 
State encourages alumni of its exchange programs to connect through a 
central Web site that allows members to find fellow alumni, search for 
job opportunities, and participate in online discussion forums, among 
other activities. Officials at the Australian Agency for International 
Development stated that they are in the process of developing in- 
country alumni networks for their programs. Australian officials also 
noted that maintaining relationships with influential alumni may 
advance diplomatic and development assistance objectives. Other 
scholarship programs, such as the Erasmus Mundus program, have also 
created Web-based networks to facilitate contact with scholarship 
program alumni. 

Agency Comments: 

We provided a draft of this report to the Department of State and USAID 
for review and comment. They both provided technical comments that we 
incorporated into this report where appropriate. In addition, cognizant 
officials from peer governments we reviewed were also provided sections 
of our draft report relevant to their programs and provided technical 
comments that were incorporated where appropriate. 

We are sending copies of this report to the Secretary of State and 
USAID, relevant congressional committees, and other interested parties. 
In addition, the report will be made available at no charge on the GAO 
Web site at [hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov]. 

If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please 
contact me at (202) 512-7215 or Scottg@gao.gov. Contact points for our 
Office of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on 
the last page of this report. GAO staff that made major contributions 
to this report are listed in appendix V. 

Signed by: 

George A. Scott:
Director, Education, Workforce, and Income Security Issues: 

[End of section] 

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology: 

Overview: 

This appendix discusses in more detail our scope and methodology for 
this study. The goals of this study were to determine (1) the 
objectives the United States and selected peer governments seek to 
advance through higher education for international students and the 
approaches they employ to attract international students, and (2) the 
characteristics of major United States and peer government programs 
that fund higher education for international students in support of 
public diplomacy and development goals. 

To carry out these objectives, we interviewed government officials and 
industry experts in the United States and in selected peer governments, 
analyzed public diplomacy and development assistance scholarship 
programs, and reviewed studies and evaluations related to the United 
States and peer governments' efforts to support international higher 
education. In addition, we provided the U.S. agencies and peer 
governments the opportunity to review and comment on the draft report 
sections that are applicable to them and incorporated their comments 
where appropriate. 

We conducted our work from March 2008 to April 2009 in accordance with 
all sections of GAO's Quality Assurance Framework that are relevant to 
our objectives. The framework requires that we plan and perform the 
engagement to obtain sufficient and appropriate evidence to meet our 
stated objectives and to discuss any limitations in our work. We 
believe that the information and data obtained, and the analysis 
conducted, provide a reasonable basis for any findings and conclusions. 

U.S. Agency and Peer Government Selection: 

We selected two U.S. agencies and five peer governments for review. 
Though many U.S. agencies are involved in promoting U.S. higher 
education to international students, we limited our scope to the 
Department of State and the U.S. Agency for International Development 
because they are primarily responsible for funding programs aimed at 
public diplomacy and development assistance, a principal interest of 
our congressional requestor. We applied a range of criteria to select a 
judgmental sample of four countries for review: Australia, China, 
Germany, and the United Kingdom. First, we identified countries that 
had the largest global share of international student enrollments using 
2008 data from the Institute for International Education. To capture 
recent trends in student mobility, we also considered each country's 
growth in international enrollments, comparing the 2008 data to 2000 
base year data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and 
Development (OECD).[Footnote 23] Further, to ensure a more global 
perspective of the international education landscape, we reviewed a 
geographically diverse set of governments that, collectively, attract 
students from a wide range of countries. We also conferred with embassy 
and government officials as well as industry experts to obtain their 
recommendations on which countries to visit and review based on their 
knowledge of international education. We ensured that our selection 
included both English and non-English-speaking countries. In addition 
to selecting individual countries, we also reviewed the European Union 
(EU) based on its international education efforts on behalf of EU 
member countries, many of which are top destinations for international 
students.[Footnote 24] While our selection of countries included some 
of the nations that are most active in recruiting international 
students, it is not representative of all nations that have these types 
of programs. 

Program Selection: 

We selected 13 programs--9 public diplomacy and 4 development programs--
for review. Though many of the governments we reviewed may fund a 
number of smaller scholarship programs, we limited our study to 
scholarship programs that receive at least $8 million annually, or the 
equivalent in local currency, and award at least 50 scholarship awards 
annually based on the information we received. In addition to the 
funding and participation level consideration, these programs were also 
identified by officials in the United States and peer governments as 
being most important to the success of their country's international 
education efforts. However, there may be other scholarship programs 
offered by peer governments that met our established criteria, but were 
not included in the report due to our inability to acquire sufficient 
information about these programs. 

Finally, it should be noted that in many cases the programs we reviewed 
address multiple objectives, including public diplomacy and development 
objectives, and for the purposes of this report, these programs were 
categorized as either public diplomacy or development assistance 
programs, depending on their primary focus. We studied programs that 
offer scholarships to students for vocational, undergraduate, or 
graduate-level study for any length of time. We did not include 
scholarships for outbound students funded by sending governments. While 
our focus is on programs that receive host government funding, some of 
these programs are funded or administered jointly with other 
governments or nongovernmental organizations. 

Site Visits and Interviews: 

A major part of our study involved interviewing officials from the 
United States and selected governments, as shown in table 3. Officials 
included government executives, program administrators, and industry 
stakeholders. During these site visits, we also collected relevant 
documents, including those dealing with funding, scholarship amounts 
and number of scholarships, program evaluations, and program goals. In 
some cases, officials were not able to provide us the information in 
the detail requested, and in these instance, we noted that in the 
report. Moreover, because of the nature of this study, we were not able 
to independently verify or assess the reliability of the data provided 
by the foreign countries we reviewed. We also did not independently 
verify the foreign laws and declarations discussed, but instead relied 
on our discussions with foreign officials and the documents we 
collected. 

Table 3: Governments and Agencies Reviewed as Part of Our Study: 

Government: United States; 
Agencies: 
* U.S. Department of State; 
* U.S. Agency for International Development; 
* Institute for International Education; 
* NAFSA: Association of International Educators; 
* American Council on Education. 

Government: Australia; 
Agencies: 
* Australian Embassy in United States of America; 
* Australian Agency for International Development; 
* Department of Education, Employment and Workforce Relations; 
* Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade; 
* Australian Group of Eight; 
* Universities Australia; 
* The Australian National University. 

Government: People's Republic of China; 
Agencies: 
* Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States; 
* Ministry of Education; 
* China Scholarship Council; 
* Chinese Education Association for International Exchange; 
* State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs; 
* Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries; 
* The Office of Chinese Language Council International Confucius 
Institute Headquarters (Hanban); 
* National Center for Educational Development Research-Tsinghua 
University. 

Government: European Union; 
Agencies: 
* Directorate-General for Education and Culture, Cooperation and 
International Programmes; 
* Education, Audiovisual, and Culture Executive Agency; 
* Delegation of the European Commission to the USA. 

Government: Germany; 
Agencies: 
* German Embassy in the United States; 
* German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). 

Government: United Kingdom; 
Agencies: 
* United Kingdom Embassy in the United States; 
* The Department for Innovation, Universities & Skills; 
* The Foreign and Commonwealth Office; 
* The British Council. 

Government: Others; 
Agencies: 
* Embassy of France in the United States; 
* Embassy of New Zealand in the United States. 

Source: GAO. 

[End of table] 

Literature Review and Program Data: 

To provide some context for understanding government efforts to support 
public diplomacy, development assistance, or other objectives through 
higher education, we also reviewed a number of studies dealing with the 
global landscape for international higher education. Our review 
included research from organizations such as the Institute for 
International Education (IIE), NAFSA: the Association of International 
Educators, as well as government agencies of the selected peer 
governments. We also reviewed relevant program documents, including 
agency strategic plans and evaluations of scholarship programs, when 
available. 

[End of section] 

Appendix II: Percentage of Scholarship Recipients from Each Region by 
Scholarship Program: 

Public diplomacy: 

Host government and program name: Australian Endeavour Awards; 
Total number of scholarship recipients: 403; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Near East: 6; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Europe and 
Eurasia: 9; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Africa: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: South and 
Central Asia: 38; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Western 
Hemisphere: 2; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: East Asia and 
the Pacific: 44. 

Host government and program name: EU Erasmus Mundus Program; 
Total number of scholarship recipients: 1,957; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Near East: 6; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Europe and 
Eurasia: 9; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Africa: 14; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: South and 
Central Asia: 17; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Western 
Hemisphere: 27; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: East Asia and 
the Pacific: 27. 

Host government and program name: UK Chevening Programme[A]; 
Total number of scholarship recipients: 1,051; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Near East: 
15; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Europe and 
Eurasia: 17; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Africa: 13; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: South and 
Central Asia: 11; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Western 
Hemisphere: 14; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: East Asia and 
the Pacific: 30. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Edmund S. Muskie Graduate 
Fellowship Program; 
Total number of scholarship recipients: 145; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Near East: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Europe and 
Eurasia: 66; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Africa: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: South and 
Central Asia: 34; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Western 
Hemisphere: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: East Asia and 
the Pacific: 0. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Fulbright Foreign Student 
Program; 
Total number of scholarship recipients: 3,204; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Near East: 9; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Europe and 
Eurasia: 30; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Africa: 8; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: South and 
Central Asia: 9; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Western 
Hemisphere: 29; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: East Asia and 
the Pacific: 16. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Global Undergraduate Program; 
Total number of scholarship recipients: 452; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Near East: 
25; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Europe and 
Eurasia: 20; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Africa: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: South and 
Central Asia: 19; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Western 
Hemisphere: 17; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: East Asia and 
the Pacific: 19. 

Development assistance: 

Host government and program name: Australian Development Scholarships; 
Total number of scholarship recipients: 978[B]; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Near East: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Europe and 
Eurasia: 1; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Africa: 8; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: South and 
Central Asia: 9; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Western 
Hemisphere: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: East Asia and 
the Pacific: 81. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Collaborative Research Support 
Programs; 
Total number of scholarship recipients: 67; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Near East: 1; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Europe and 
Eurasia: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Africa: 28; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: South and 
Central Asia: 13; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Western 
Hemisphere: 36; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: East Asia and 
the Pacific: 21. 

Host government and program name: U.S. Cooperative Association of 
States for Scholarships; 
Total number of scholarship recipients: 162; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Near East: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Europe and 
Eurasia: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Africa: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: South and 
Central Asia: 0; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: Western 
Hemisphere: 100; 
Percentage of scholarship recipients by region of origin: East Asia and 
the Pacific: 0. 

Sources: Australian Department of Education, Employment, and Workplace 
Relations; Australian Agency for International Development; European 
Commission's Education, Audiovisual, and Culture Executive Agency; U.S. 
Agency for International Development; and U.S. Department of State. 

Notes: Information is from fiscal year 2007 or more recent and 
represents the latest year for which region of origin information is 
available. Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding. 

[A] Characteristics represent the UK Chevening Programme's core 
scholarship scheme. 

[B] Number of scholarships awarded in 2007. 

[End of table] 

[End of section] 

Appendix III: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments: 

GAO Contacts: 

George A. Scott, Director, (202) 512-7215 or scottg@gao.gov: 

Staff Acknowledgments: 

In addition to the contact named above, Sherri Doughty, Assistant 
Director; Tranchau Nguyen, Analyst-in-Charge; Christopher Lyons; Daniel 
Novillo; Eve Weisburg; Susannah Compton; Alexander Galuten; Martin De 
Alteriis; Jess Ford; and Helen Hsing made key contributions to this 
report. 

[End of section] 

Footnotes: 

[1] GAO, 2009 Congressional and Presidential Transition Series, 
[hyperlink, 
http://www.gao.gov/transition_2009/urgent/diplomacy-broadcasting.php] 
(accessed Feb. 12, 2009). 

[2] The U.S. share of international students in 2000 and 2008 is based 
on data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 
(OECD) and the Institute of International Education, respectively. GAO 
relied on publicly available information for these 2 years. Further, 
during this period, the number of international students studying 
abroad globally increased by 61 percent. State officials attribute much 
of the drop in the United State's share of international students to 
large increases in intra-European student mobility. 

[3] GAO, Higher Education: Challenges in Attracting International 
Students to the United States and Implications for Global 
Competitiveness, [hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-07-1047T] 
(Washington, D.C.: June 29, 2007). 

[4] GAO, Higher Education: United States' and Other Countries' 
Strategies for Attracting and Funding International Students, 
[hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-08-878T] (Washington, D.C.: 
June 19, 2008). 

[5] GAO, Higher Education: Federal Science, Technology, Engineering and 
Mathematics Programs and Related Trends, [hyperlink, 
http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-06-114] (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 12, 
2005). 

[6] Throughout this report, currency is converted to U.S. dollars at 
2008 annualized exchange rates. 

[7] Germany has developed multiple slogans to promote its international 
higher education. Other slogans are tailored to a specific field or 
program. 

[8] This Web site provides information on 32 European countries: 
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, 
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, 
Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, 
Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, 
Switzerland, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. 

[9] See [hyperlink, 
http://studyinaustralia.gov.au/Sia/en/WhyAustralia/whyaustralia.htm] 
for additional information on Australia's Web page (accessed Feb. 12, 
2009). 

[10] See [hyperlink, http://www.educationusa.state.gov/home] for 
additional information on the U.S. Web page (accessed Feb. 12, 2009). 

[11] The United Kingdom conducts outreach to international students 
through the British Council, an independent nonprofit organization. The 
British Council provides information and guidance on cultural relations 
and education opportunities through its international network of 
offices. 

[12] The German Academic Exchange Service, Germany's publicly funded 
independent national agency for the support of international academic 
cooperation, has created a global network of 48 information centers 
worldwide. These centers provide locally relevant information to 
potential students of German universities. 

[13] EducationUSA is a network of independent educational advising 
centers located in a wide variety of institutional settings around the 
world that receive government support in the form of staff training and 
advising materials from State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural 
Affairs. Although the majority of the educational advisers are not 
employed by the United States government, the Department of State is 
responsible for the oversight of these centers to ensure that this 
independent network is focused on the EducationUSA mission of providing 
advice to students that is comprehensive and unbiased. The centers do 
not operate on behalf of specific institutions and programs. 

[14] Participating countries include Albania, Andorra, Armenia, 
Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, 
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, 
Germany, Greece, Holy See, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, 
Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Montenegro, 
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, 
Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, "the 
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia," Turkey, Ukraine, and the United 
Kingdom. 

[15] Applicants for the Australian Development Scholarships program may 
be nominated by their home government through a competitive selection 
process. All other applicants meeting the selection criteria may apply 
directly to the program under a separate application category. 

[16] The Erasmus Mundus program is a scholarship program funded by the 
European Union that aims to improve the quality of higher education in 
Europe and promote intercultural understanding through cooperation with 
non-European countries. 

[17] This comprises a fixed award of 5,000 euros plus 1,600 euros per 
month for 10 months. Should an Erasmus Mundus course comprise 12 study 
months per year rather than 10, the student will receive 24,200 euros 
per year. In 2010, the program will begin offering awards that vary 
with participation costs. 

[18] Candidates in countries with Fulbright Commissions must meet the 
citizenship criterion specified in an agreement between the United 
States and that country. In countries without Fulbright Commissions, 
candidates must be citizens or nationals of that country, or permanent 
residents qualified to hold a valid passport issued by that country. 

[19] The Cooperative Association of States for Scholarships program 
received final funding in fiscal year 2008. These funds support the 
current cohort of students, whose training may last through 2010. A 
successor program, Scholarships for Education and Economic Development, 
will also provide higher education scholarships and training to 
disadvantaged young people in the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, 
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, and Haiti, and supports U.S. 
economic and governance goals for the region by increasing human and 
institutional capacity. 

[20] Partnerships, a component of the 2009-2013 Erasmus Mundus program, 
is supervised by the European Commission's Directorate General Europe 
Aid Cooperation Office and is primarily concerned with funding study in 
the European Union for students from selected emerging and developing 
countries. 

[21] Though the U.S. government is the primary source of funding for 
the U.S. Fulbright Foreign Student Program, participating countries and 
host universities contribute financially, both through direct cost 
sharing and indirect support. 

[22] While scholarship programs sponsored by State have different goals 
than USAID programs, participants are also required to return home upon 
completion of the program, a requirement that is enforced through the 
visa process. 

[23] OECD is an international organization in which governments can 
compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify 
good practices, and coordinate domestic and international policies. 
OECD collects data, monitors trends, and analyzes and forecasts 
economic developments and other areas. Exchanges between OECD 
governments flow from information and analysis provided by OECD. 

[24] EU member countries include Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, 
Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, 
Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, 
Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, 
Sweden, and the United Kingdom. 

[End of section] 

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